CSET Subtest 1

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"Fundamental components of language: Phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, role of pragmatics in using language to communicate", "• Phonology o The rule system within a lang by which phonemes are sequenced, patterned and uttered to represent meanings; also, the study of this rule system o The study of how sounds are org and used in natural lang o 44 sounds (phonemes) in English language o 3 types of phonetics: Production (articulation), Transmission (acoustic), Perception (auditive) • Morphology o The study of meaningful units of lang and how their patterns of dist contribute to the forms and structure of words; distinct from etymology, which is the study of the historical and cultural origins of words. o Analyzes the structure of words and parts of words (stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes) o Looks at parts of speech, intonation and stress, the ways context can change a word’s pronunciation and meaning • Syntax o Study of grammatical relat. btwn words and how they are combined to form phrases and sentences • Semantics o The meaning of a word, phrase, sentence, or text o Types: • Formal: Studies the logical aspects of meaning, such as sense, reference, implication, and logical form • Lexical: Studies word meanings and word relations • Conceptual: Studies the cog structure of meaning • Role of Pragmatics o Study of meaning in language in a particular context • The place where the thing is said, who says it, and the things that you have already said o Studies how people speak when they both know something" "Phonemic awareness (e.g. process of rhyming, segmenting, and blending) / vocab", "Phoneme awareness: • The conscious awareness that words and utterances are made up of segments of our own speech that are represented with letters in an alphabetic orthography • Ability to hear, identify, and manipulate indiv. sounds (segment words by sound and then blend them back together) • Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound • Impact phonemic awareness has on language acquisition & literacy development Derivational morpheme: Meaningful unit combo with roots or stems to form new words w/new meanings, w/the potential to change the part of speech (e.g., -ish added to the noun boy results in an adjective boyish). Pragmatics: Studies lang that is not directly spoken; principles and assumptions for using lang and related gestures communicatively in social context Affix: A letter or series of letters added to a root word that can change its meaning; can be beginning or end of a word to modify its meaning or linguistic function; (e.g. un-, dis-, ex-, -able, -less, -ism) Denotative meaning: Dictionary (precise) meaning Connotative meaning : Refers to wide array of pos and neg assoc. that most words naturally carry with them Idiolect: Speech habits peculiar to a particular person Phonics: A method of teaching people to read by correlating sounds with letters or groups of letters in an alphabetic writing system (e.g. the sound ‘k’ can be spelled as c, k, ck, or ch. Teaching children to blend the sounds of letters together helps them decode unfamiliar or unknown words by sounding them out) Phonology: The study of speech sounds and how they change depending on certain situations or placements in syllables, words, and sentences (e.g. the ‘difference in s’ sounds in the words ‘helps’ and ‘crabs’)" "Differences between phoneme awareness and phonics", "Phonemic awareness is counting and developing awareness of sounds (isolation: ‘sheep’ has 5 letters but 3 sounds, ‘cat’ has 3 letters and 3 sounds; blending: teacher says word slow and students say it fast: ‘i-t” is ‘it” ‘h-o-p’ is ‘hop’, manipulation: say ‘chair’ then replace ‘ch’ sound with ‘f’ sound = ‘fair’) – game like and all auditory Phonics: introduces written letters; learn that certain sounds go with certain letters; learn rules and patterns of letter and sound relationships" "Alphabetic Principle means", "Understanding that letters represent predictable sounds which form words" "Parts of speech and their functions, as well as morphology contributing to their classification", "• Verb: name an action (run, jump, or take) o Can describe a state of being (“is” or “has”) o Convey the time of the action (I am jumping, I jumped yesterday) o Verbs never use apostrophes • Noun: people, places, things, feelings, or ideas o Can use apostrophes (only part of speech that does) • Pronoun: stand in for nouns (he, she, or it) • Adjectives: provides information about a noun (big, small, fast) o Can be a whole phrase • Adverb: provide information about verbs o Single word or phrase o Often they end in –ly • Preposition: tell us the position of an object (on, under, in) or relationship btwn objects (of, before, after) • Conjunction: joining words (or, and) • Interjection: express surprise (Shoot! Darn!)" "Basic sentence structure", "• Independent clause: can stand alone; contains a subject and a verb and is a complete idea • Dependent (subordinate) clause: not a complete sentence; must be attached to an independent clause to become complete • Prepositional phrase: begins with a preposition (in, at, for, behind, until, after, of, during) and modifies a word in a sentence (Answers many questions.) • Compound: Consists of 2+ independent clauses • Complex: Has at least one independent clause plus at least one dependent clause • Simple: Contains a subject and a verb, and may also have an object and modifiers; contains only one independent clause • Compound-Complex: Consists of at least 2 indep clauses and 1+ dep clauses" "How to develop first language and the acquisition of subsequent ones", "How a child develops their 1st lang: • With interaction with parents, adults, and other children • They acquire the language that is used around them How a child develops their 2nd lang: • Receiving input in the target language that is just slightly above their current level of acquired understanding • Must be done actively and consciously through explicit instruction and education • Can be done by immersion (idea is that all input is received in target lang and eventually output will be spoken in target lang) • 5 Stages: o 1: Silent or Receptive Phase: dedicate time to learning new vocab and saying new terms o 2: Early Production: “collects” new words; may also start to say some terms and may begin forming short phrases o 3: Speech Emergence or Production: Have collected several thousand words; can communicate by combining these learned words into short phrases and sentences o 4: Intermediate Fluency: Begins communicating in complex sentences; true conversations emerge; may begin to think in the 2nd lang o 5: Cont Lang Dev or Fluency: Cont to dev new lang and achieve accuracy with increasing complexity and with social pragmatics" "Identify the major theories that attempt to explain the processes of development and acquisition", "• Erikson: Psychosocial dev. Proposed that indiv go through 8 distinct, universal stages of dev. Each stage consists of a dev task that confronts indiv with a crisis o Dev is life-long o Dev not sexual in nature o 8 stages of dev. (1st five relate to childhood) o Trust vs. mistrust: birth-1 year o Autonomy vs. shame and doubt: 1-3 years o Initiative vs. guilt: 3-6 years o Industry vs. inferiority: 6-12 years o Identity vs. role confusion: 12-18 years o Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young Adult o Generativity vs. Self-Absorption and Stagnation: Middle Age o Integrity vs. Despair: Old Age • Freud: Psychosexual dev.: Psych who postulated that human bhvr is irrational and the mind is made up of the id (primitive, irrational unconscious that is driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure seeking desires), ego (rationalizing conscious that mediates what a person can do), and superego (ingrained moral values, which specify what a person should do). o Human bhvr is motivated by forces in the “unconscious mind” o Indidv interact with the external enviro o Personality and psychosexual identity is developed through these interactions o Personal: Id, Ego, Superego o Psychosexual Stages: o 1: Oral; 2: Anal; 3: Phallic: 4: Latency; 5: Genital • Piaget: Cognitive Dev.: Swiss psych who says children’s cognitive dev depends on their ability to org, classify, and to adapt to their enviro • Sequential stages children progress to learn, think, reason, and exercise judgement • Learn cognitive life skills, lang dev., problem solving, decision making, critical thinking, oral and written communication • Divided into 4 periods: o Sensorimotor Stage: Birth – 2 yo. Prim. task is object perf.; dev sense of self; use of lang; mental rep to think about events before and/or after they occur o Peoperational Stage: 2-7yo; characterized by egocentrism; learning through imitation of others, phys and cog exploration, and questions; thinking is concrete and reasoning is intuitive, based on observation o Concrete Operations Stage: 7-12 years; thinink becomes increasingly logical and coherent; concept of time evolves; reasoning is inductive; concept of conservation and reversibility are mastered o Formal Operational Stage: 12-adulthood; thinking becomes increasingly abstract, logical, analytical, and creative; ideas are combined to form concepts; hypothesis/theories, developed/tested; alternate solutions for problems are generated and examined; primary task is to develop a philosophy for life o Kohlberg: Moral development: Theorist who claimed individuals went through a series of stages in the process of moral development. o Based on Cognitive Developmental Theory: Preconventional level; Toddler (ages 1 to 3) o Conventional level: Preschool Age (ages 3 to 6) o Postconventional autonomous, or principled level: Adolescence (ages 12 to 18) • Albert Bandura: Social Learning Theory: Idea that to understand bhvr it was also necessary to understand how people think; interaction among bhvr, enviro, and personal/cognitive factors; views learning as active and occurring within a social context • Vygotsky: Sociocultural Cognitive Theory: Children actively construct their knowledge; culture and social interaction guide cognitive dev – learning to use inventions of society, learning from social interactions with more skilled adults and peers, interaction creates tools to adapt to culture. • Behaviorism: scientific studies can only be based on direct observations and measures; development is observable behavior, learned from experiences, advocates continuity over stages • BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning: behavioral theory; consequences - rewards and punishment - shape behavior; development is pattern of behavioral changes; modifying environment produces change, changes determined by consistency experiences, rewards, or punishments" "Major descriptions of developing literacy", "o Stage 0 (pre-reading) • 6 months- 6 years old • Pretend to read, gradually develop skills to retell stories when looking at pages of books previously heard o Stage 1 (initial reading, writing, and decoding) • 6-7 years old • learning relation between letters and sounds and between print and spoken word o Stage 2 (confirmation and fluency) • 7-8 years old • can read simple, familiar stories and selections with increasing fluency o Stage 3 (reading to learn the new) • 9-13 years old • reading is used to learn new ideas, to gain new knowledge, to experience new feelings, to learn new attitudes, generally from one or two points of view o Stage 4 (synthesizing information and applying multiple perspectives) • 14-17 years old • reading widely from a broad range of complex materials, both expository and narrative, and are asked to apply a variety of viewpoints" "Decoding and Comprehension", "Decoding • Convert into intelligible lang; analyze and interpret • Ability to apply your knowledge of letter-sound relationships, including knowledge of letter patterns, to correctly pronounce written words • Key skill for learning to read that involves taking apart the sounds in words (segmenting) and blending sounds together Comprehension • The action or capability of understanding something • Literal meaning • Inferential meaning • Evaluative meaning • Word recognition o Process by which students learn to identify words and word parts o Begins with understanding that letters symbolize the sounds in words and progresses to the ability to understand complex word parts and syllabication principles" "Knowledge of stages of writing process", "• 5 steps of writing o 1: Outline: Brainstorming; Paragraph structure/concepts o 2: Note-taking: Research (if needed); Key points o 3: Rough draft: Put the information you researched into your own words o 4: Revision: Rearrange words, sentences, or paragraphs; Take out/add parts; Do more research if needed o 5: Final draft: Make sure grammar and spelling is correct; Make sure ideas and thoughts are well explained and sourced" "Use various writing principles to produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience", "o Organization • Chronological, Spatial/geographical, Logical/topical, Biographical, Narrative, Compare-contrast, Cause-and-effect, Problem-solution o Transitions • Can connect paragraphs and turn disconnected writing into a unified whole • Help readers to understand how para work together, ref one another, and build to a larger point o Point-of-view • Who’s telling/narrating the story (1st, 2nd, or 3rd person) o Word choice • Helps increase the impact you create on your audience • Best writing creates a vivid picture in the reader’s mind • Well-selected words appeal to the senses o Conventions • Control of spelling, grammar and punctuation o Task • Type of writing you are asked to do: letter, featured article, editorial, or speech o Purpose • Reason for writing: Inform, entertain, explain, or persuade o Audience • The intended person (people) who will read your writing" "• Compose and/or analyze writing in different genres", "o Argument: • convincing • anticipates readers reaction • recognizes the opposing claim • well organized • presents supporting reasons for the claim • presents logical evidence to support the reasons for the claims • states clearly the author’s claim • presents reasons for the claim • written discussion about single topic o Informative: • introduction introduces a topic and grabs readers attention • present tense • clearly conveys information and ideas • develops a topic with specific, relevant details, such as facts, examples, quotations, and anecdotes • organizes information by compare/contrast, cause/effect, definition, and classification • uses formatting, graphics, and multimedia when appropriate • uses precise language and vocabulary • formal style and tone • ends with a conclusion that summarizes the main points and follows logically from the information presented o Narrative: • characters • plot • conflict • setting • point of view • sequence of fictional or nonfictional events • novels, short stories, comics, plays, musicals, and narrative poetry o Summaries: • conciseness (condenses information) • accuracy • objectivity o Letters: • clearness • correctness • completeness • conciseness • attractiveness • coherence • courtesy • creativeness • effectiveness • positive impression and impels the receiver to do the jobs the writer wants o Research Reports: • originates with a question or problem • factual • clear and easily understandable • free from errors and duplication • should facilitate the decision makers in making the right decision • result focused and result oriented • well organized and structured" "How to make an argument and how to support argument with evidence", "How to make an argument o consider the situation o clarify your thinking o construct a claim o collect evidence o consider key objections o craft your argument o confirm your main point How to support argument with evidence: o statistics o examples o expert opinion" "Analyze works from different literary genres as they are represented in diverse cultures, with special attention to children’s literature, for both literary elements and structural features", "o Novels: • Prose narrative and length • Fictional or semi-fictional subject matter • Connected sequence of events involving a group of persons in a specific setting o Short stories: • Length • Limited number of characters • Subject matter • Tendency to begin the middle of things o Folktales: • About ordinary people and everyday life • Setting, characters, and a problem • Characters are often flat, rep 1 particular trait • Usually passed along orally • Usually contain a lesson to be learned o Fairy tales: • Set in the past • Fantasy or make-believe elements • Enchanting setting (forests, castles, water or kingdoms) • Clearly def. good and evil characters (hero & villain) • Universal lesson o Poems: • Imaginative • Creative • Descriptive and vivid language • Provokes thought • Causes an emotional response • Uses figurative lang (personification, similes (like or as), metaphors (hidden or implied comparison btwn 2 things unrelated) • Imagery where the reader/listener creates vivid mental images • Often rhymes or has rhythm • Often includes words and phrases that have a pattern • Story in verse"