Compare and contrast the biological and phylogenetic species concepts with regards to
bird taxonomy and systematics. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each
approach? Which do you think is best and why?
• Biological
• Traditional view
• Based on reproductive
isolation, two things are seperate species if they breed and cant make viable offspring
Problem - Hybridization occurs, if we follow we would have less species.
rare hybrid does not change genetic makeup of the population , hard to test if birds can make offspring if the species are far away
• Phylogenetic
• Contemporary
• Based on shared
derived characters, parsimonious, fewest evolutions
Problem – Choosing characters, where to draw the line between how different species have to be,
Discuss the two competing hypotheses regarding the evolution of birds from reptiles,
including details of the timing of origins and relationships to the evolution of feathers
and flight. Which one is likely correct and why?
thecodont birds and dino evolved separately from the common ancestor thecodonts
feathers evolved for flight
gliding flight theory
gliding origins more likely
small tree dwelling theocodonts found
no supporting fossil evidence
247 mya dinosaurs evolved from thecodonts birds evolved between around 150 mya
theropod
Dinos diversified into theropods which diversified into birds
birds evolved features for thermoregulation
ground up flight
ground up theories difficult to argue
in support
bone morphology similarities
feathers present
Sinosauropteryx = tiny theropod with feathers
Describe the avian respiratory system and the features that help make it the most
efficient among terrestrial vertebrates. Discuss both the anatomy and physiology
Birds have evolved to be an outstanding mechanism of efficiency. Instead of having two large lungs that contain the air sacs, birds have relatively small lungs which are surrounded by nine air sacs.
-expand ribcage
-inhale - air leaves lung
-exhale- air enters lung
air sacs
don't play direct role in gas exchange
serve as bellows to store extra air
Allows a continuous stream of air to pass through the lungs in a one way flow
Other functions other than gas exchange- protection and communication makes songs and calls. thermoregulation panting, gular flapping
one way flow though system, maximizing gas exchange, addition to small lungs have 9 air sacs
Describe a case study where systematics or taxonomy were used to improve
conservation or management. Explain specifically the relevance and use of this
evolutionary information to your example
Snowy plovers
in west two populations inland or on coast of cali
The decline of pacific coast snowy plovers has been attributed to loss of nesting habitat and habitat degradation caused by expanding beach-front development and recreation, human disturbance, encroachment of European beach grass on nesting grounds, and predation
coastal breeders destinct population segment enough to get on the endangered species act help. bird within 50 miles of the coast
Explain how birds are able to achieve powered flight. Be sure to describe all the forces
involved and the basic physics principles we discussed in class
• Gravity – the weight of the bird pulling
down
• Lift – generated by secondaries & tail, upward pressure force countering gravity, must be more than gravity to create lift
• Drag – resistance to forward motion
• Thrust – provided by primaries,forward force countering the slowing influence of forces of turbulence and frictions, flapping of the wings
Cambered shape = airfoil
• Unequal distances of air traveling (static pressure is greater below creating lift)
over dorsal & ventral surfaces
• Static pressure = atmospheric
• Dynamic pressure = kinetic energy of
wind
the air flows faster on top of the wing than under the wing. Air flowing faster on top causes the bird to be pulled upward, and the air flowing slower underneath the wing, cause it to be pushed upward
Describe the Humprey-Parkes plumage terminology. Include definitions of the relevant
terms, and a description of the 4 major molt strategies
• Humphrey & Parkes
• Basic strategists have one definitive (adult) plumage
• “Pre-basic molt” produces basic plumage
• Alternate strategists have two definitive (adult) plumages
(“breeding and non-breeding plumage”)
• “Pre-alternate molt” produces alternate plumage (breeding)
• Simple
• Juvenile plumage molts
directly into definitive
basic
• Complex
• One or more additional
plumages inserted
between juvenile and
definitive
• Juvenile molts into
formative
• “First basic, First
alternate, etc.”
Four combinations:
• Simple basic
• Simple alternate
• Complex Basic
• Complex alternate
Explain the pectoral girdle and its associated muscles, with a focus on its adaptations for
effective powered flight in birds
The pectoral girdle is the set of bones that supports the forelimbs (wings). In birds, it includes the furcula, scapula and coracoid Pectoral muscles contract; they bring each wing down creating thrust and lift. In response the supracoracoideus that is connected by a tendon on top of the hummus works as a pulley to lift the wing everytime the muscle contracts
1. Strong, light skeleton
2. Reduced body weight
3. Rigid skeleton
4. Enlarged, keeled
sternum
5. Braced pectoral girdle
6. Modified wing joints
7. Powerful flight
muscles
Compare and contrast the ways that food resources control clutch size of individual
females in precocial and altricial species. Does this affect determinate and
indeterminate layers differently?
altricial more effected because young extremely dependent
more eggs for precocial
cluth size depends on how much she need or can feed her young
pre less effected
de set amount so not much effected
al preps by laying less eggs
lacks hy
Explain Lack's hypothesis. What is one reason that female birds lay clutches smaller than
predicted by that hypothesis?
as clutch size goes up reduces the chances of raising all fledging. with this can construct lacks curve. females maximize how much fledging they can raise. hypothesized that natural selection has caused clutch size in birds to evolve toward that which produces the most surviving offspring.
Combination of clutch
size & parental ability
to feed increasing
numbers of young
• Yields clutch size
curve
In many cases, observed
clutch size is less than
optimal
- as seen in kestrels Reproduction has costs...
• Effects of increased clutch size are felt
more strongly by the parents (via
decreased survival) than the offspring
Why has mimicry evolved in many birds? Choose two theories, explain them, and
provide relevant examples of each
help with sexual selection, like the superb lyrebird, males create a complex song of mimiced birds and forrest sounds. the more complex, the more females want, a tool for getting a leg up on the competition
As males age, they...
– Mimic more accurately
and...
– Increase their
repertoires
indicator of male quality and age
MANIPULATION
stellers jay mimic raptors to fool predator species itself or to manipulate prey
is migration in birds an innate or learned behavior? Design and describe how you would
experimentally test a hypothesis related to either innate or learned behavior.
I think for most species migration is innate, but some species learn. Cross fostering experiment. swap eggs between migratory and non-migratory birds. if migrating juveniles from the non migratory nest still migrate it will prove it is innate.
Describe the timeline and major components of song learning in a passerine with an
example
for the white-crowned sparrow, Genetic template: individuals hatch with a predisposition to decipher the song of their species and not confuse it with that of other songbirds. Mistakes sometimes happen!
Sensory (critical) period: Learning requires memorization! And this is the interval from 10-50 days in the life of a young sparrow when it must hear and memorize conspecific song. If he can't hear other birds sing (i.e., because he's isolated in a cage and kept from hearing them...), then song develops abnormally. How might a female sparrow learn its song?
Sensorimotor period: 150 days post hatchThis represents the phase in life when a male practices what he memorized during the critical period. If he cannot hear himself sing (i.e., because his auditory nerves have been severed), then song develops abnormally
Design and describe an experiment for how you would test one of the two theories
discussed in class that potentially explain the evolutionary origins of cooperative
breeding. Your experiment should include a testable hypothesis and explain how you
would prove or disprove that hypothesis
my theory is the evolutionary origin of cooperative breeding is dur to ecological constrains. I believe species breed cooperatively because they are limited by local resources. I would test this by having 2 locations where acon woodpecker communities are found. One community, I would supplement its food source and plant more acorn trees. If environmental constraints was supporting cooperative breeding then the community with supplemented food would become uncooperative and start creating single pair bond nest.
Why is polyandry the rarest of the major mating systems in birds? What are some
evolutionary and behavioral characteristics of species that exhibit polyandry?
1 female multi male pair bonds
• Phalaropes
• Females defend males
males raise young
• Polyandry
seen as a rare genetic cross over event on sex chromosomes. Physical and behaviors are switched. females more colorful, more aggressive, more defending territory , less parental duties
males have no clue that the eggs they are caring for are their own
its not sustainable for males
its not beneficial for males, they don't know if eggs are related to them. This could enable a cheating event where males dont raise young, it becomes unsustainable
Compare and contrast the following terms: Population, community, guild, and niche.
Provide examples that illustrate each term
Community features:
1. Multiple species
2. Populations interact
3. Stable assemblage (?)
4. Repeatable in similar
environments
GUILD
• Subset of species that
use resources similarly
• Not necessarily
taxonomically closely
related
• Competition is
important in guilds
NICHE
An ecological niche is the role a species plays within its habitat, based on biotic and abiotic factors.including habitat
use, trophic position,
etc
POPULATION
all inhabitants of a particular area
Wilson's Snipes methodically probe soft, muddy ground for earthworms, crustaceans, and other invertebrates,
in your own words, describe one of the classic spatial patterns in bird communities that
we discussed in class. Choose a process that may explain that pattern and describe it
checkerboard distribution
Pattern: Presence/absence of
closely related taxa on oceanic
islands ...
• Process: Competition ... species
with similar ecologies cannot co-
exist
Choose a species of conservation concern. Describe the major threats that have
endangered that species, as well as some of the management activities used for its
conservation.
Galapagos Penguin
threated by global warming effecting their food, pollution, and non-native predators.
the entire worlds population protected within the Galapagos National Park, artificial nest constructions, predator control, developing educational programs
Explain the concept of endemic bird areas and how they are used for conservation
restricted range bird species a species that has a breeding range of less than 50,000. an endemic bird area is defined as an area that encompasses the overlapping breeding ranges of restricted range bird species. such that the complete ranges of two or more restricted-range species are entirely included within the boundary of the EBA. this does not mean it complete range of a species is in the EBA
Create a testable hypothesis relating climate change to either: a) bird populations or b)
community ecology. Choose one of the monitoring programs we discussed in class (or
another relevant, existing one) and explain why it would be an appropriate source to
help answer this question
Hawaiian honeycreepers confined to high elevations Due to introduced mosquitoes in Maui. Due to climate change and warmer temperatures mosquitoes can spread their range into higher elevations. We can not decrease global temperatures but we can try island-wide mosquito control by decreasing trash, drainage ditches with standing water, and aerial spraying. Using Audubon Christmas count y we can asses if Hawaiians honeycreepers range with increase. can see range shift
Choose two of the reasons we discussed that birds are prone to extinction. Explain each
reason, and give a specific example (can be a bird species that became threatened,
endangered, or extinct in part due to that reason).
rare species - like the kirtlands warbler- has specialized habitat requirments regenerating pine forest limits and restricts the distributions and abundance of the warbler
high on the tropic levels - less abundant and they bioaccumulate toxins in the environment like peregrine falcon greatly effected by DDT pesticide.
Choose one of the laws relating to bird conservation that we discussed in class. Describe
how it functions to protect birds. In what areas is it successful? What are some
weaknesses to its approach?
Lacey act.
• 1900
• 1st federal action to limit market
hunting
• prohibits the importation, exportation, transportation, sale, receipt, acquisition, or purchase of any fish or wildlife or plant taken though intertstate lines, possessed, transported, or sold i
overall decline in illegally sourced products
• Lacked enforcement, hard to enforce, not a lot of money when started